A Reading in the Applied Ibāḍī Fiqh of International Relations: The Directive of Imām al-Ṣalt (d. 275/888) to His Army Concerning Socotra
Article Sidebar
Abstract
The directive of the Omani Ibāḍī Imām al-á¹¢alt ibn Khamīs al-Kharūṣī, read out to his army upon their deployment to the island of Socotra, is a document of 3rd/9th century Islamic international law. The local Christian community, being under covenant (dhimmah) with the Muslims, had broken their treaty by rebelling against Muslim rule and killing the Imām´s governor. This article analyzes the available historical sources and the directive as contained in Tuḥfat al-aʿyān bi-ṣīrat ahl ʿUmān, by the 13th/19th-century Omani scholar Imām al-Sālimī. It covers questions of authorship, details surrounding the campaign, and Islamic rules on international relations according to the Ibāḍī school. It provides insight into military organization and administration in al-á¹¢alt´s imamate and allows an assessment of Muslim-Christian and international relations as well as those between followers of Ibāḍism and other schools. Al-á¹¢alt´s legacy sets high ethical standards for warfare and anticipates a number of deliberations commonly considered as modern.
References
al-Aghbarī, Ismāʿīl ibn Ṣāliḥ ibn Ḥamdān. “ʿAhd al-Imām al-Ṣalt ibn Mālik wa-ʿumuquhū l-ḥaḍārī.” In Aʿmāl nadwat taṭawwur al-ʿulūm al-fiqhiyyah fī ʿUmān. Al-Fiqh al-ḥaḍārī, fiqh al-ʿumrān, 73-104. Muscat: Wizārat al-Awqāf wa-l-Shuʾūn al-Dīniyyah, 2012.
al-Bār, Muḥammad ʿAlī. “Yawm al-Muʿtaṣim fī ʿAmūriyyah wa-yawm al-Ṣalt fī Suqaṭrá,” Star Times, 02.06.2009. http://www.startimes.com/?t=17172523. Accessed August 8, 2017.
al-Anbālī, Aḥmad ibn Saʿīd ibn Khamīs. “Tārīkh jazīrat Suqaṭrá.” n.p., n.d. http://www.soqotra.org/books/ahmedalanbali/historysocotrailand.pdf. Accessed September 25, 2017.
Bābā ʿAmmī, Muḥammad ibn Mūsá, Ibrāhīm ibn Bakīr Bahāz, Muṣṭafá ibn Ṣāliḥ Bājū, and Muṣṭafá ibn Muḥammad Sharīfī. Muʿjam aʿlām al-Ibāḍiyyah min al-qarn al-awwal al-hijrī ilá l-ʿaṣr al-ḥāḍir: Qism al-maghrib al-Islāmī. Beirut: Dār al-Gharb al-Islāmī, 2000.
al-Baṭṭāshī, Muḥammad ibn Shāmis. Salāsil al-dhahab fī l-furūʿ wa-l-fuṣūl. Salṭanat ʿUmān: Wizārat al-Turāth al-Qawmī wa-l-Thaqāfah, 2002.
al-Bisyawī, Abū l-Ḥasan ʿAlī ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAlī. Jāmiʿ Abī l-Ḥasan al-Bisyawī. Salṭanat ʿUmān: Wizārat al-Turāth al-Qawmī wa-l-Thaqāfah, 1984.
Bouzenita, Anke. ʿAbdarraḥmān al-Auzāʿī – ein Rechtsgelehrter des 2. Jahrhunderts d.H. und sein Beitrag zu den Siyar. Erarbeitet auf der Grundlage des k. ar-Radd ʿalá siyar al-Auzāʿī. Islamkundliche Untersuchungen, Band 240. Berlin: Klaus Schwarz Verlag, 2001.
Bouzenita, Anke. The Political Legacy of Abd al-Raḥmān al-Awzāʿī. Kuala Lumpur: International Islamic University Malaysia, 2008.
Ennami, Amr. Studies in Ibadhism (al-Ibāḍiyah). Muscat: Ministry of Endowments and Religious Affairs, 2008.
al-Ḥamawī, Shihāb al-Dīn Yāqūt al-Rūmī al-Baghdādī. Muʿjam al-buldān. 5 vols. Beirut: Dār Ṣādir, 1977.
al-Hamdānī, Lisān al-Yaman al-Ḥasan ibn Aḥmad ibn Yaʿqūb. Ṣifat jazīrat al-ʿArab. Edited by Muḥammad ibn ʿAlī al-Akwaʿ al-Ḥawālī. Cairo: Dār al-Āfāq al-ʿArabiyyah, 2001.
al-Ḥārthī, Saʿīd ibn Ḥamad ibn Sulaymān. “Muqaddimah.” In al-Yusrá fī inqādh jazīrat Suqaṭrá, by Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd Allāh and Nūr al-Dīn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Ḥumayd al-Sālimī, 1-3. Muscat: Maktabat al-Ḍāmirī li-l-Nashr wa-l-Tawzīʿ, 1992.
Hāshim, Mahdī Ṭālib. al-Ḥarakah al-Ibāḍiyyah fī l-mashriq al-ʿArabī. 2nd ed. London: Dār al-Ḥikmah, 2003.
al-Hāshimī, Saʿīd ibn Muḥammad. “Qirāʾah fī sīrat al-Imām Muḥammad ibn Maḥbūb ilá ahl al-Maghrib.” In Aʿmāl nadwat taṭawwur al-ʿulūm al-fiqhiyyah, 95-111. Muscat: Wizārat al-Awqāf wa-l-Shuʾūn al-Dīniyyah, 2002.
Hoffman, Valerie J. “Ibāḍī Scholars on Association and Dissociation, from the 10th to the 21st Century.” In Ibāḍī Jurisprudence: Origins, Developments and Cases, edited by Barbara Michalak-Pikulska and Reinhard Eisener, vol. 6 of Studies on Ibadism and Oman, edited by Abdulrahman Al Salimi and Heinz Gaube, 185-193. Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag, 2015.
Ibn al-Ḥawwārī, al-Faḍl. Jāmiʿ al-Faḍl ibn al-Ḥawwārī. Muscat: Wizārat al-Turāth al-Qawmī wa-l-Thaqāfah, 1985.
Ibn al-Ḥawwārī, Muḥammad. Jāmiʿ Abī l-Ḥawwārī. Muscat: Wizārat al-Turāth al-Qawmī wa-l-Thaqāfah, 1985.
al-Izkawī, Abū Muḥammad ibn Jaʿfar. al-Jāmiʿ. Edited by ʿAbd al-Munʿim ʿĀmir. Muscat: Wizārat al-Turāth wa-l-Shuʾūn al-Islāmiyyah, 1981.
al-Jaʿbīrī, Farḥāt ibn ʿAlī. “Al-Tadwīn al-fiqhī: al-Imām Muḥammad ibn Maḥbūb namūdhajan.” In Aʿmāl nadwat taṭawwur al-ʿulūm al-fiqhiyyah, 17-71. Muscat: Wizārat al-Awqāf wa-l-Shuʾūn al-Dīniyyah, 2002.
al-Jaʿbīrī, Farḥāt ibn ʿAlī. Shakhṣiyyāt Ibāḍiyyah. al-Sīb, Oman: Maktabat al-Ḍāmirī li-l-Nashr wa-l-Tawzīʿ, 2010.
Kāshif, Sayyidah Ismāʿīl, ed. al-Siyar wa-l-jawābāt li-ʿulamāʾ wa-aʾimmat ʿUmān. Muscat: Wizārat al-Turāth al-Qawmī wa-l-Thaqāfah, 1986.
al-Kindī, Abū Bakr Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Mūsá al-Nizwānī. Al-Muṣannaf fī l-adyān wa-l-aḥkām. 42 vols. Muscat: Wizārat al-Turāth al-Qawmī wa-l-Thaqāfah, 1984.
al-Kindī, Abū Bakr Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Mūsá al-Nizwānī. Kitāb al-ihtidāʾ wa-l-muntakhab min sīrat al-Rasūl (a.ṣ.s.) wa-aʾimmat wa-ʿulamāʾ ʿUmān. Edited by Sayyidah Ismāʿīl Kāshif. Salṭanat ʿUmān: Wizārat al-Turāth al-Qawmī wa-l-Thaqāfah, 1985.
al-Kindī, Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm. Bayān al-sharʿ. 71 vols. Salṭanat ʿUmān: Wizārat al-Turāth al-Qawmī wa-l-Thaqāfah, 1993.
al-Kiyūmī, Sulaymān ibn Saʿīd ibn Ḥabīb. “Maṣādir al-Shaykh al-Sālimī wa-manhajuhū fī l-kitābah al-tārīkhiyyah min khilāl kitābat ‘Tuḥfat al-aʿyān bi-sīrat ahl ʿUmān’.” Master’s thesis, Muscat: Sultan Qaboos University, 2009.
Kondo, Yohei. “Ibāḍī Discussions on Conversion and Commitment.” Muslim World 105, no. 2 (2015): 224-235. https://doi.org/10.1111/muwo.12093.
Majmūʿah min al-bāḥithīn. Muʿjam muṣṭalaḥāt al-Ibāḍiyyah. 2 vols. 2nd ed. Salṭanat ʿUmān: Wizārat al-Awqāf wa-l-Shuʾūn al-Dīniyyah, 2012.
al-Masʿūdī, Abū l-Ḥasan ʿAlī ibn al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī. Murūj al-dhahab wa-maʿādin al-jawhar. 4 vols. Introduction and commentary by Mufīd Muḥammad Qumayḥah. Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 1986.
al-Nabhānī, Badriyyah bint Muḥammad ibn Shāmis. “Āl al-Ruḥayl wa-dawruhum al-siyāsī wa-l-fikrī fī ʿUmān min al-qarn 3h/8m - 4H/10M.” PhD Diss., Muscat: Sultan Qaboos University, 2017.
al-Nadābī, Nāṣir. “Imāmat al-Imām al-ʿUmānī al-Ṣalt ibn Mālik al-Kharūṣī.” Public lecture held at Markaz Dār al-Qurʾān, al-Sīb, Oman. Video published Feb 8, 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tSo43_R-2nc.
Nāṣir, Muḥammad Ṣāliḥ, and Ṣulṭān ibn Mubārak al-Shaybānī. Muʿjam aʿlām al-Ibāḍiyyah min al-qarn al-awwal al-hijrī ilā l-ʿaṣr al-ḥāḍir: Qism al-mashriq. Beirut: Dār al-Gharb al-Islāmī, 2006.
al-Rawas, Isam Ali Ahmad. “Early Islamic Oman (ca. -622/280-893): A Political History.” PhD diss., Durham: Durham University, 1990.
al-Rawwāḥī, Sālim ibn Muḥammad ibn Sālim. al-Imāmah wa-l-aʾimmah fī ʿUmān. Muscat: Maktabat al-Ḍāmirī li-l-Nashr wa-l-Tawzīʿ, 2016.
al-Riyāmī, ʿAlī ibn Saʿīd. Qaḍiyyat ʿazl al-Imām al-Ṣalt ibn Mālik al-Kharūṣī. Muscat: Bayt al-Ghashshām li-l-Nashr wa-l-Tarjamah, 2015.
al-Saʿdī, Jumayyil ibn Khamīs. Qāmūs al-sharīʿah al-ḥāwī ṭuruqahā al-wasīʿah: mawsūʿah ḍakhmah taḍumm tisʿīn juzʾan fī mukhtalaf funūn al-sharīʿah muqābalatan ʿalá makhṭūṭātihā. 90 vols. Muscat: Maktabat al-Jīl al-Wāʿid, 2015.
al-Sālimī, Abdulrahman and Wilferd Madelung, eds. Early Ibāḍī Literature: Abu l-Mundhir Bashīr ibn Muḥammad ibn Maḥbūb: Kitāb al-Raṣf fī l-tawḥīd, Kitāb al-muḥārabah and Sīra. Vol. 75 of Abhandlungen für die Kunde des Morgenlandes. Edited by Florian C. Reiter. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2011.
al-Sālimī, Nūr al-Dīn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Ḥumayyid. Tuḥfat al-aʿyān bi-sīrat ahl ʿUmān. 2 vols. Edited by Abū Isḥāq Aṭfayyish. Rūwī, Muscat: al-Maṭābiʿ al-Dhahabiyyah, 1983.
al-Shaqṣī, Khamīs ibn Saʿīd ibn ʿAlī ibn Masʿūd. Manhaj al-ṭālibīn wa-balāgh al-rāghibīn. 10 vols. in 5 vols. Edited and commented by Muḥammad Kamāl al-Dīn Imām. Muscat: Wizārat al-Awqāf wa-l-Shuʾūn al-Dīniyyah, 2011.
al-Shaqṣiyyah, Badriyyah bint Ḥamad. al-Sīrah al-zakiyyah li-l-marʾah al-Ibāḍiyyah. Muscat: Maktabat al-Jīl al-Wāʿid, 2014.
al-Shaybānī, Sulṭān ibn Mubārak. Muʿjam aʿlām al-nisāʾ al-Ibāḍiyyāt (qism al-mashriq). al-Sīb, Oman: Maktabat al-Sayyid Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad, 2001.
al-Shaybānī, Sulṭān ibn Mubārak. Amālī l-turāth. Naẓarāt naqdiyyah wa-qirāʾāt fī jadīd al-turāth al-ʿUmānī makhṭūṭihī wa-maṭbūʿihī. Muscat: Dhākirat ʿUmān, 2015.
al-Siyābī, Sālim ibn Ḥammūd ibn Shāmis. ʿUmān ʿabra-l-tārīkh. 2 vols. 5th ed. Muscat: Wizārat al-Turāth wa-l-Thaqāfah, 2014.
al-ʿUbaydlī, Aḥmad. “Ḥamlat al-Imām al-Ṣalt ibn Mālik ʿalá jazīrat Suqaṭrá wa-l-ʿalāqāt al-ʿUmāniyyah al-Mihriyyah.” Nizwá: Majallah faṣliyyah thaqāfiyyah 13 (January 1998), 96-102.
al-Warjalānī, Sulaymān ibn Ibrāhīm Bābzīz. al-Imām Muḥammad ibn Maḥbūb al-Ruḥaylī, ḥayātuhū wa-āthāruhū (t. 260 AH) [Commentary on Abwāb min al-sunnah mukhtaṣarah]. Muscat: Wizārat al-Turāth al-Qawmī wa-l-Thaqāfah, 2009.